Nuclear hybrid energy systems: Imperatives, prospects and challenges

In less than 60 years we have witnessed the transition of nuclear electricity production from an experiment on the high desert of the western United States to more than 430 commercial nuclear power reactors deployed in 31 countries, supplying nearly 14% of all global electricity consumed. The speed at which this transition took place was stunning, as has been the evolution of the technology, business management and operations approach to civil nuclear electricity production. Even as the United States took a two-decade hiatus from the construction of new nuclear electricity plants, other nations embraced the technology and continue to do so. Today, there are 53 nuclear power reactors under construction, 142 planned and 327 proposed for development, including a number in the United States [1]. Clearly nuclear energy is and likely will continue to play a significant role in providing access to clean electricity on a global scale, although questions related to used fuel management, plant safety, and nonproliferation create some uncertainty as to scale and timing of this contribution [2] However, as global population reaches an expected 8 billion people by 2030, primary energy consumption is expected to increase by almost 40% from approximately 520 exajoules consumed today to almost 740 exajoules. [2,3] Much of this increase is expected to come from non-Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) nations, and Asia specifically. In these economies, energy used for transportation is expected to grow substantially, as is industrial, commercial and to a lesser degree residential energy use, creating considerable pressure on global and local energy markets. The magnitude and timing of growth in energy consumption likely will creat e a global imperative to deploy energy production technologies that balance the three pillars of energy security: [4] economic stability - related to the affordability of energy products, stability and predictability in their price, and the efficient and effective deployment of global capital resources in their development; environmental sustainability - related to minimizing the negative impacts of energy production to air, land, and water systems and advancing the long-term viability of using a particular resource in a way that does not limit future generations ability to prosper; resource security - related to the ability to access energy resources and products where and when necessary, in an affordable and predictable manner;