Determining lithium-metal deposition and related aging in batteries

Embodiments disclosed herein include a device including a lithium-ion battery and a battery-management system. The battery-management system may be configured to measure charge states of the lithium-ion battery over a number of charging cycles at specified conditions. The battery-management system may also be configured to obtain an expression for lithium-metal-deposition (LMD)-based capacity fade. The battery-management system may also be configured to determine an LMD state of the lithium-ion battery responsive to a comparison between the measured charge states and the expression. Related devices and systems are also disclosed herein. Additional embodiments are directed to methods, systems, and/or devices configured to generate an expression for LMD-based capacity fade.